America 1815 - 1848, a land of some darkness

A friend gave me Daniel Walker Howe's brilliant book entitled, 'What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America 1815 – 1848'. It is Rolls Royce history. There is fascinating detail; a vast array of deftly painted characters; and much drama, most of it on a grand scale. And yet throughout the book’s 850 plus pages our author never loses sight of the wood for the trees.

 The wood, the central story line, is the titanic battle being waged for America’s soul in this era. Daniel Howe explains that in 1815 there were two visions for the New World. One was for the familiar rural America to expand across the whole continent. Integral to this vision was the continuation and expansion of slavery. The standard bearer for this cause was Andrew Jackson. The other vision was to reform society, which meant bringing an eventual end to slavery, and introducing economic diversity. The standard bearer for this cause was John Quincy Adams. The first put the emphasis on land; the second on the quality of life. The book ends in 1848 - the climax of the vicious clash between these two visions erupted twelve years later. And while the second vision won the Civil War, it would seem that the dark energy of that first vision, albeit in different language, still casts a shadow over the United States in the 21^st Century.

 A land of some darkness

 The title of the book is the first message sent by telegram by Samuel Morse from Washington to Baltimore on May 24^th 1844: ‘What hath God wrought’. This is taken from Numbers 23:23 where there is an exclamation mark. Morse left this out. Later he added a question mark.

 And that question mark hangs over the entire narrative. For, as Howe acknowledges, much of the drama he writes about is dark. So much so that any lingering sentimentality that the USA is a unique beacon of light is comprehensively snuffed out[1]. This is not because Howe has any axe to grind. He is scrupulously fair. It is simply the weight of the meticulously researched events he presents[2].

 War

 One area of darkness is war. Apart from the one with the British, won by Andrew Jackson at the battle of New Orleans (January 1815), all the others – against the Spanish, the Mexicans, and the native Indians - are motivated by a desire to win land to expand rural white America. In the press there was much talk of ‘manifest destiny’, God’s will that the white man should rule the entire north American continent. A good translation of ‘manifest destiny’ would be racist greed.

 As said, the embodiment for this ‘manifest destiny’ was Andrew Jackson. Howe paints him well: ‘A man’s man’ who ‘never apologised, never forgave, and never shrank from violence.’ For Jackson believed in ‘the legitimacy of private violence (he had killed a man in a duel in 1806) and the assertion of male honour.’ Jackson was a populist, distrusting elites, and claiming to be the embodiment of the ordinary American. This meant in fact that he was a law unto himself. After the victory of New Orleans, when six of his soldiers decide to leave early – he hanged them. When challenged by a judge, Jackson put the judge into prison.

 And when General Jackson was asked by President Monroe to deal only with the Seminole Indians and not the Spanish in Florida, Jackson ignored these orders. He attacked both the Indians and the Spanish. When two Englishmen were captured and accused of colluding with the Indians, with barely a trial, Jackson hanged them. There was an outcry, but Florida was won for the United States and the politicians in Washington looked the other way.

 The wars against Mexico were again all about land for the white man (and his black slaves). First there was Texas where American settlers, led by Stephen Austin, rose up against the Mexicans in the 1830s. The Mexicans won at Alamo, killing nearly every white; Sam Houston and the settlers then wrecked their revenge near the city that took Houston’s name. They did not take prisoners. Enjoying close support from Americans, Texas was independent for ten years, but then, fearing the meddling British, Washington easily persuaded the new country to be annexed.

 It was President James Polk, ‘a narrow man with a dull personality’ who oversaw that annexation of Texas. A ‘devoted follower’ of Andrew Jackson Polk saw the acquisition of land as the surest path to wealth and power. So he engineered the next war with Mexico. There was no legitimate cause. It was all about land. Polk wanted New Mexico and especially California, recently handed back to Mexico by the Spanish. Again this naked greed for land was dressed up in the language of ‘manifest destiny’; the fruit was the creation of a fictional border dispute that led to war. All was duplicitous as many of Polk’s critics pointed out. One officer wrote, ‘We have not one particle of right to be here’, and a new political star in Washington, Abraham Lincoln thundered – ‘The blood of this war, like the blood of Abel, is crying to Heaven against him.’ With the brilliant military genius of Winfried Scott[3], America won this Putinesque war. Polk, on his own amoral terms, was extremely successful. His diplomacy had already sorted out the issue of Oregon with the British, and now victory over the Mexico had delivered to the United States both New Mexico and California. He extended US territory more than any other president.

 An area of greater darkness were the wars with the Indians, though this was hardly war, it was more like a wilful policy of extermination. For the native Indians were seen as obstacles of progress. They did not belong in this continent whose ‘manifest destiny’ was to be ruled by white men. Again it was Andrew Jackson (President 1829-1837) who dominated the crusade to drive Indians from their own land. In May 1830 Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act. This resulted in the ‘Trail of Tears’ and the death of thousands of Indians. If the Indians resisted, they were easily vanquished. And then there was more death, as with the massacre of hundreds of men, women, and children in the Black Hawk’s War in August 1832. The Indian Removal policy resulted in in thirty million acres of land being seized by the whites. This surely was racist greed. Or in Howe’s more polite prose: ‘Andrew Jackson mobilized the federal government behind the expropriation and expulsion of a racial minority whom he considered an impediment to national integrity and economic growth.’ When it came to Jackson’s disciple, Polk, and the conquest of California, it is the same story. In just ten years after the white Americans took over, around 100,000 Indians died. It is no wonder that some historians use the word ‘genocide’ when it comes to how the Indians were treated. The worst of this racist greed though was not even this massive land grab, with its contempt for the life of Indians and Mexicans.

 Slavery

 The worst of this racist greed, was the country’s ‘peculiar institution’. Like other euphemisms (‘special treatment’ ‘ethnic cleansing’ ‘extraordinary rendition’) these two words, ‘peculiar institution’ tried to soften what was the noxious heart of America’s darkness in this era: slavery.

 Whatever subject Howe turns to, there sits this massive and malevolent shadow twisting the narrative to its own advantage. Again this is nothing to do with Howe wanting to use history to disparage his country’s past. It is simply the history he finds. As he writes early on in the book – ‘The debate over the future of human slavery in an empire dedicated to liberty threatened to tear the country apart.’ Indeed, this was surely the reason for Morse later putting a question mark over the first message he had sent by telegram: is this really what God has brought about, a New World built on the ownership of slaves, something that was illegal in the Old World?

 When the book opens in 1815 the total population of that New World was eight and a half million; nearly one and a half million were slaves. These slaves generated massive wealth for the cotton plantation owners of the South, and that wealth shaped the politics in Washington. They also generated massive fear. Howe argues that outside the South, hardly anyone defended slavery in principle. Rather fear of an uprising made it a pragmatic necessity. After Denmark Vesey’s uprising in South Carolina in 1822, ruthlessly put down with over a hundred executions, this pragmatism hardened.

 This greed and fear and a dogmatic assumption that the black man or woman was inferior made the defenders of slavery obsessive. Their ‘peculiar institution’ was a domineering god, demanding protection at every turn. And so slavery’s foul odour intruded, and often dominated, the narrative painted on Howe’s vast canvas.

 It certainly dominated economics. The defenders of slavery were not content with the fabulous wealth they were gaining from the sweat of black men and women. For them, any threat to slavery had to be resisted. So there was a lot of unease when John Quincy Adams as president spearheaded a campaign to improve the country’s transport system. One result of this was the Eerie Canal which transformed the economy and made New York the Empire State. The disquiet for the slavery party was simple logic: if Congress is able to impose infrastructure on different states, so too the Congress can authorise the emancipation of the slaves. Support for slavery then put up road blocks against infrastructure improvements for the economy. It opposed modernisation. Or as John Quincy Adams wrote – ‘Slavery stands aghast at the prospective promotion of the general welfare.’ This opposition often happened in the name of ‘state rights’, an argument that served as a protective fence for slavery. The individual states had to decide on infrastructure – so the individual state could decide about slavery. If there had been no issue with slavery, as Quincy Adams points out, people would support projects for their general welfare.

 A crucial component for modernisation was a national bank which was able to issue a currency across all the states. Again this fear, that too much power in one financial institution might threaten slavery, won the day. Andrew Jackson dismantled the well thought through plans for a national bank, and – with much corruption – let government funds go to separate state banks. This was a 19^th C version of ‘drain the swamp’ which simply worked up unfounded fears to stop sensible progress.

 As the shape of domestic policy was warped by slavery, so too was foreign policy. So we have the Tallmadge controversy, when Missouri in 1819 wanted to join the Union but James Tallmadge put in an amendment in Congress that slavery should be illegal in the new state. The South was outraged, and the amendment failed in the Senate. Missouri joined the Union as a slave state. With the annexation of Texas, the main issue for the Secretary of State, James Calhoun, was the protection of slavery which would be threatened if Texas made an alliance with Britain. It was the same for the wars with Mexico. James Polk, the owner of 19 slaves who had been separated as teenagers from their parents, saw all the land he coveted for the Union as land where slavery could be extended. However, as the Tallmadge amendment shows, millions of Americans were opposed to slavery and so wanted any new states to be free. The intensity of the division over this issue caused John Quincy Adams in his diary to wonder if it would cause a civil war. Such was his hatred for slavery that he added that if it did, it would be worth it.

 Slavery, of course, shaped the character of national politics. Andrew Jackson’s Democrats and his successors were full on supporters not just of slavery, but also its extension. Generally they viewed African Americans as having no rights whatsoever. They were property to be sold and brought – and even gambled with, as Andrew Jackson did with his slaves. Their opponents, called Whigs, had some in their ranks who opposed slavery, but as a national party they were not committed to the abolition of slavery because it would lose them too much support. So there was compromise.  Indeed one of their leaders, Henry Clay, was known as ‘The Great Compromiser’. His argument, and many of his colleagues was that the emancipation of the slaves was too dangerous for the whites: ‘The liberty of the descendants of Africa in the United States is incompatible with the safety and liberty of the European descendants.’ So while millions opposed slavery, especially in the north there was no national party that stood for abolition. Such was the dark influence of America’s ‘peculiar institution.’

 The ferocity unleashed against those who did campaign for the emancipation of slaves is unnerving. In 1829 David Walker, a freed slave, launched an anti-slavery paper with William Garrison in New York. This became the voice of the abolitionist movement. As well as the newspaper, they printed 175,000 tracts arguing that slavery was a moral evil to send to influential people in the South. There was an uproar. Post offices were burgled. The tracts were burnt. Andrew Jackson wanted to make this sort of campaigning illegal, calling the abolitionists monsters who wanted to incite civil war. Jackson failed to make it illegal, but if post masters did not deliver the abolitionist mail, there was no inclination in Washington to enforce the law. There was much mob violence in the 1830s, much of it directed against abolitionists and freed blacks, seen to be traitors of the god of white supremacy, an almost religious cause for many. Andrew Jackson’ successor, Martin Van Buren, was equally determined to defeat the abolitionists and so introduced what is known as the ‘gag’ rule to stop anti-slavery petitions coming to Congress. This was brilliantly opposed by John Quincy Adams who ingeniously circumvented the rule, so bringing in more publicity, and sympathy for the abolitionists who were exercising a right everyone needed – the right to petition their government.

 Almost equal to the government (state and national) in influence was Christianity. Howe gives careful attention to the role of the churches and the Bible in this era, underlining how central Christianity was to the new country. 31 million Bibles were printed between 1816 to 1866, and the population of the US was only 30 million in 1860. The Bible then was everywhere. As were church buildings, Americans were building a thousand a year. And sermons – Howe tells us that in 1840 twice as many sermons were heard as letters were received. The county was awash with Christianity. Sadly though the tares of America’s ‘peculiar institution’ were also there, growing together with the wheat. Howe – as always – is very fair towards Christianity. He refuses to climb on a cheap soap box and denounce the whole faith because of its general complicity with slavery, as some teenage liberals do. Rather he points out that the main opponents both to the Indian Removal policy and slavery tended to be Christians. There is a vivid section about the preacher and social reformer Lyman Beecher who campaigned for temperance, Bible literary, helping abused women, and above all for the abolition of slavery. His daughter, Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin’. Howe also writes about the great revivalist preacher Charles Finney who denounced slavery from the pulpit and refused communion to slave holders. The voice of the abolitionists was strong in the Methodist church which is not surprising since by 1820 one in five Methodists were black. The Quakers too were abolitionist. Despite these many voices, it is sadly not the case that the church as a whole was against slavery. For some Christians used the Bible to defend slavery. Foreshadowing what would happen in South Africa in the 20^th Century they claimed that Genesis 9:25 talked about how the black people were cursed and destined to serve the white man. And how it was better for the black people to live separately They also cited the Apostle Paul and his letter to Philemon which is all about Philemon’s slave, Onesimus, who has come to faith in prison through Paul and who was now being sent back to his owner by Paul – still a slave.

 As with politics, so with the church. The malevolent presence of slavery shaped its character, and Howe has to conclude that in general the churches tended to compromise. He has this sensible conclusion regarding the Bible: ‘Without resolving moral controversy, it endowed moral standards and rational discourse with each other’s authority, strengthening both.’

 Perverse Hypocrisy

 Howe’s narrative ends in 1848, the year of revolutions in Europe. And here we are reminded again of the perverse and arrogant hypocrisy that can easily reign in the human heart. For in the New World many saw the revolutions against the monarchies in Europe as a part of a ‘manifest destiny’ which they, the Americans, had pioneered. Dark Europe with its kings and queens was now looking to the America, the land of light and liberty.

 Howe’s 850 plus pages underline that in fact America herself was a land of some darkness, not light - especially for Mexicans, Indians, and Negroes. And some Americans in 1848 were realising that it was their country that needed a revolution, not Europe, where slavery was illegal.

 In a calm final sentence Howe again uses Samuel Morse’s first telegram message to speak into our own day. With one word ‘awe’ he acknowledges all that the USA during and certainly since this era has given to the world. With another, ‘uncertainty’ he acknowledges the dark forces that are still at work in America, their roots in the period he has so brilliantly portrayed.

 Here is that sentence.

 ‘Like the people of 1848 we look with both awe and uncertainty at what God hath wrought in the United States of America.’

 If you want my notes on the whole book, please scroll down.

 What Hath God Wrought

The Transformation of America 1815 – 1848

Daniel Walker Howe

 Introduction

 24^th May 1844 first Morse code message sent from Washington to Baltimore. The message was: What God Hath Wrought.

 Till then fastest message was the fastest horse. The telegram helped integrate an expanding country. The period ends with Polk’s Mexico war which added California to the US.

 What God Hath Wrought is from Numbers 23:23, fitting Morse’s Christian faith and sense of providence. A synthesis of science and religion. Both revelation and reason led to God. The telegram would help expand the kingdom of God.

 Howe avoids ‘Jacksonian America’ for this era, and ‘the market revolution’. His phrase is ‘communications revolution’. Fierce discussion, a battle for ideas. Not all American supported an imperial destiny. There was bitter protest over the removal of the Indian tribes in the 1830s. And opposition to Polk’s Mexico war. Especially from Christians. Above all – ‘the debate over the future of human slavery in an empire dedicated to liberty threatened to tear the country apart.’

 What God Hath Wrought, in the Bible has an exclamation mark.

Morse left this off.

Later he added a question mark – over the whole American project.

 Prologue: Defeat of the past

 January 1 1815 – the battle for New Orleans between Americans and the British. Americans led by Andrew Jackson (Old Hickory, because tree so firmly rooted), the British by Pakenham.

 Jackson had a bitter hatred for the British, relied on instinct as well as formal authority.

 Excellent description of the battle which resumed a few days later. AJ saves New Orleans. News of peace that had been signed on December 24^th (1814) arrived. Even though New Orleans had been saved by artillery, it was the rural soldiers who were praised… it was a victory of ‘self-reliant individualists with a charismatic leader’,

 Here we see the political divide of the future – between the individual of the farm, or the machinery of the industrial revolution.

 Chapter 1 The Continental Setting

 In 1815 the US did not control the whole continent; lots of Indian tribes. And as well as the US, the British were in Canada, and the Mexicans in the south.

 Largest city on the continent was Mexico City. California, reached by RC missionaries for Spain. Florida belonged to Spain.

 There were nearly half a million Indians in the US. And then another half a million were in the lands that the US would take after the Mexican war.

 In the north, the Canadians, who didn’t want to go under the US. Two US invasions, 1776, and 1812 had been repulsed.

 Agriculture was the livelihood, regardless of race.

 ‘Life in America in 1815 was dirty, smelly, laborious, and uncomfortable.’ But, these peasants owned their own land, unlike those in Europe. Work so much that the unmarried a rarity. People got ahead by innate ability and hard work, proud wilful independence came from having their own land. But also respect for God and their community.

 Terrible road system. Dirt tracks. Distance remained America’s ‘first enemy’. Most lived near the coast. Most dreamed of a large farm, a small business. All farmers also traders.

 Issue of abolition of slavery already brewing. New York had a programme of gradual emancipation. Slavery rose on the back of the vast expanses of cheap land available. In 1815 there were 8.4 million people in the US; 1.4 million were hereditary slaves. Outside the deep south nobody tried to justify slavery in principle; but there was fear of white supremacy being endangered if it was abolished. By 1815 there were about 200,000 free African Americans.

 The argument for slavery was planter paternalism, caring for people who could not look after themselves. The negroes were children. To look after the slaves was of course in the interest of the owner. However there was no illusions about ‘black contentment’. So, ‘the fear of insurrection haunted the white South’. Emancipation would cause a black rebellion. They might be murdered. Also they were affluent and great consumers. They dominated the politics of the south. Dominated the presidency.

 Two visions of America in 1815

 1. The familiar rural America, with slavery, to expand geographically.

2. Reform society and bring in economic diversity. Qualitative progress.

 Chapter 2: From the Jaws of Defeat

 President Madison in Washington heard the news of the victory at New Orleans on February 4^th. Relief. Esp because in August the British had got to Washington, with runaway slaves too. British victory at Bladensburg. Maddison had fled too. British had torched the President’s house. (So now called ‘White House’ as white paint later tried to hide the black marks)

 Failed to take Baltimore; but took 2400 slaves, and the Americans pursued the British for compensation for eleven years after this.

 Madison sacked Armstrong and appointed James Monroe to the War Office. There was little party discipline for Madison after this debacle. Two groups – the Federalists and the Republicans.

 Meanwhile Jackson enjoying his power in New Orleans. Had six militiamen executed for trying to leave before their time of service had ended. Put the district judge in prison when he challenged AJ’s martial law. New Orleans seen as AJ’s victory.

 The peace treaty gained nothing for the US. Just ended the war. For the Indians, bad news. Now, no support from the British. In 1814 AJ had seized a lot of Creek land. When ordered to hand them back by Madison, AJ refused. And Madison didn’t push.

 Algiers had also come against the US in the 1812 war; now Madison went against Algiers, May 1815. June 29^th dictated peace terms. Commodore Decatur attended many banquets – he made an ominous toast –

 ‘Our country! May she always be in the right; but our country, right or wrong.’

 Madison president because of Jefferson. Contributed to the constitution and the bill of rights. AJ judged him ‘not fitted for a stormy sea.’ In his speech that year emphasis on communications. And a tariff to protect local manufacturing. Also a vote for a Second Bank. Clay and Calhoun hoping for federal funds to finance national transport system. Madison vetoed this because wanted an integrated plan.

 1816 Monroe was the Republican candidate. Rufus King for the Federalists. Monroe easily won.

 Chapter 3: An era of Good and Bad Feelings

 Monroe, an 18^th dresser, from the Jefferson scheme of things, a veteran from the revolution. Stood for an increase of nationalism. By this he meant the interests of the whites, with only the white males in charge. As had been wished by the founding fathers he wanted to rule by consensus, and leave party politics. Illusion. Though the Federalists fade, this meant all the politically able joined the Republicans, and so here was a melting pot of views.

 Major foreign policy event after the peace with Britain was the Jackson’s invasion of Florida in 1818 in response to borderland violence from the Indians. AJ’s instructions were to only deal with the Indians and not attack any Spanish assets. He went beyond this. He also executed two British men accused of helping the Indians. He succeeded in quelling Florida, uproar in Washington. Henry Clay denounced AJ, but AJ still gets the votes. He is a national hero. Ironically, he was helped by John Quincy Adams who thought it best not to withdraw Clay in order to get a good peace settlement from Spain – which he, as Secretary of State did. Treaty signed in early 1819, US gets all of Florida. This led to the Monroe Doctrine which is spelt out in December 1823 State of the Union Address. A. The lands of North and South America are NOT to be thought of as lands for colonisation by a European power. B Opposed any interference by any European power.  C So the US would not interfere in Europe. D Spain must not transfer any of its domains to another European power. So, this was a US sphere of interest.

 This nationalism joined by economic activity. Most important was the Erie Canal which redrew the economic map of the US, putting New York – who initiated the project – centre stage.

 The nature of this nationalism seen in the case between Virginia and the US Supreme Court under Chief Justice Marshall, (p121), a conflict between state and federal law.

 Chapter Four: The World That Cotton Made

 Excellent survey of the magnitude of the migration that happened within the USA as a result of a. AJ winning Florida and the SW which gave 14 million acres and b. the peace that came around the Great Lakes accepting US hegemony. Washington keen on settlement, not income, so land sold very cheaply and on credit. A lot of speculators too.

 In the SW the culture was very violent, and the high price of cotton swiftly established more plantations, and saw another mass movement of slaves into the region, the travelling almost as grim as the sea journey had been. Massive slave market in New Orleans.

 Plantations in the south; mills for textiles in the north. Lovell Town, a successful enterprise where workers were treated well. In the NW, cultures of Yankees and Scotts-Irish clashed, latter individualistic. .

 In 1819 there was a panic, and loans were recalled. Suffering. It was boom and bust. Banks blamed. This followed by the Missouri Controversy. Missouri wanted to enter the Union. Fine, but Talladge put in an amendment that slavery there should be illegal. This ignited a. the issue of slavery and b. the political question of whether authority rested with the state or with the federal government. The southern opposition was very solid. Eventually there was a compromise very much in the south’s favour. Jefferson who supported the south because of the fear of an uprising wrote to a friend that this was just a reprieve. John Quincy Adams in his diary mused that even if the slavery question did cause a war, it would be worth it.

 In 1822 Jefferson’s fears were realised when Denmark Vesey conspired in South Carolina to lead an insurrection against the whites. Was discovered. 135 executed. Put this fear of a black uprising very much on the radar, and turned John Calhoun into a vociferous supporter of state rights.

 Chapter Five: Awakenings of Religion

 Discussion over US’s separation of state and faith. Religion was to be ‘purely voluntary’. Clear link between the churches and democracy – ‘The churches and other voluntary associations nurtured American democracy.’

 Section on Lyman Beecher – revivalist and social reformer. Renewing man and society with the Gospel. Supports temperance, because early 19^th US hard drinking society, ‘All social classes drank heavily’. Linking Christianity to temperance was an innovation. Consumption declined. Engaged in other good causes – Bible distribution, mission, defending abused women. Above all – the abolition of slavery. One of Lyman Beecher’s daughters was Harriet Beecher Stowe (wrote Uncle Tom’s Cabin). A son was Henry Ward, great preacher of next generation. So Christians were to influence America, without a fixed role in politics.

 Discussion about Calvinist Samuel Hopkins. And Nathaniel William Taylor of Yale who was more optimistic about humans and sin. Lyman Beecher faithful to the end.

 Section on Charles Finney, from Western NY. Self-educated. Edwards saw revivals as a mystery; Finney as something that could be worked for. He invented the ‘anxious bench’ as an evangelist. Many followed his methods. Pushed for a personal decision. And involved women. Very successful especially with migrants. Finney and Edwards were ecumenists; the Methodists were not. Circuit riders. Description of their life-style. Page 176. Use of camp meetings. Organized classes. Phoebe Palmer, founder of Holiness side of Methodism.

 ‘The early Methodists devoted more attention to organization than they did to the study of theology.’ Focus on creating churches. 20,000 by time of the Civil War.

 Also the Baptists. Kept on splintering. Similar to Methodists, not so centrally organised. Emphasis on restoring things to the NT.

 And the free Black churches – see page 182. Spiritual awakenings resonated with slaves. Emphasis on inner freedom. By 1820 one in five Methodists were black. Flow of music page 185. ‘American folk music of unparalleled power’

 Second Great Awakening, huge impact. Americans were building one thousand churches a year.

 Enhanced individualism and community, based on a trust in ordinary people. ‘The evangelical movement brought civilization and order’. People became Christians because they wanted to. And the teachings – don’t get drunk, work hard, suited those who wanted to build America. And it gave women a platform. Harriet Livermore preached in front of John Quincy Adams. Countless thousands involved in religious and benevolent societies – a list that is ‘long and bewilderingly varied.’ Called, ‘the benevolent empire’ – Robert Baird – ‘The American version of evangelical Protestantism represented, for him, what God hath wrought.’

 Extent of Christianity in people’s minds here: twice as many Methodist sermons were heard in 1840 as were letters received.

 Quakers – more radical politically. See p. 195.

 Roman Catholics p. 197 Bishop Carroll, Jean Cheverus – freedom of religion. Due to dispersed population, Catholic revivalism, similar to Protestant camp meetings. Bishop John Hughes, assertion of clerical authority and fostered a strong Irish American identity, and the RC church in the USA was dominated by the Irish. Kept pace with immigration. Bottom up help.

 Awakenings in USA – all things to all men.

 Chapter 6 Overthrowing the Tyranny of Distance

 Republican party broke up for the 1824 election. Crawford – establishment, state rights, so no upsetting of the slavery boat versus Calhoun – nationalism; also John Quincy Adams, wide experience, man for the East. Henry Clay for the West.

 And an outsider – Andrew Jackson. Image of a military hero. ‘No one liked Jackson for president, except the voting public.’ Establishment did not take him seriously.

 Crawford got ill. Shift in how candidates our chosen p 207. Close. Fell to House of Representatives. Adams v Jackson. Adams won because backed by Clay. Became president, Feb 1825. His president father, John Adams, aged 89, still alive.

 Jackson supporters outraged. Clay seen as a Judas.

 Main issue for JQA = transport. Issue of federal versus states. Water better than roads – steamboats. Some dangerous. 42 boilers blew up. P 214. Canals – most successful the Erie Canal, made NT the ‘Empire state’. Long term boom. Changed the economy. Allowed Ohio and other states to be settled. Others copied. Concern from the south that if Congress can make canals, Congress can also emancipate the slaves. People willing to block modernisation to keep slavery.

 Great keenness to get the news from ships coming from Europe to NY, p. 223. So also intent on improving communications. Post Office the life-blood. Largest activity of the federal government. Expansion under John McClean, p. 226. Newspapers relied on the post office. Helped by improvements in printing press, 1825.

 Post offices, also other activities because mandated to stay open seven days a week. Christians tried to change this. Sabbatarian controversy.

 Publishing of books on the back of communications and transport. People could even earn a living by writing. Discussion of authors – Washington Irving, James Cooper, then later of course Harriet Beecher Stowe and ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin’, 1852.

 Transport increased legal tangles between states and the federal government.

 Above all impacted politics. Age of intrigue ending, because information moving swiftly over the continent. Would underpin democracy.

 Chapter 7 The Improvers

 4^th July 1826, 50^th anniversary of America, both Jefferson and John Adams died. JQA was president. He was committed to ‘the goal of human improvement.’ = regulation of activities. More on liberal wing of Congregational church. Soaked in Cicero and 18^th C Scottish philosophers.

 Clay made Sec of State, accusations of a ‘corrupt bargain’. All apart from Jackson were intriguers. Opp from John Randolf, very rude about Clay. Duel.

 So two groups – Adams’ men and Jackson’s men.

 Adams admirable vision, p. 252. Expand commerce. Wanted to make it happen, would use the White House as a ‘bully pulpit.’ States of course wanted to keep ‘pork barrel legislation’.

 Georgians keen to possess Indian lands. Treaty. Creeks sold and agreed to move, but there had been bribes. JQA nullified it. AJ supported the Georgians. Showdown. Helped AJ.

 JQA’s FP also criticised, issues mainly in the south. Very capable opponent in Martin Van Buren.

 Reference to blacks returning to Africa, section IV p 260. Key man = Robert Finlay. Others suggested finding places nearer than Africa. The policy solved the conundrum of the fear of a black insurrection if there were general emancipation in the US. Most free blacks wanted to stay there. Clay supported colonisation. There was thought of funding it from the sale of land in the West. But the expansion West also suggested diffusion, inter state movement. At heart there was the issue of the states not letting the federal government to intervene. And in fact slaves preferred to go to Canada, not Africa (Liberia). Great letter from a black to his former master p. 266.

 Section V, deals with Freemasonry. Starts with story of William Morgan, murdered by Free Masons in 1826. Covered up by other Masons. This led to the formation of the Anti-masonic movement. Became the first third party in American politics. Held a national convention, like the evangelical reform movements, in 1831.

 Section VI – Clay’s ‘American system’ combining agriculture and manufacturing, where all can work together. Pro tariffs, and so against the British system of unregulated free-trade. Protectionism supported by AJ. Most of the south though against it because it helped the textiles in the north, not them.

 VII – Campaign for 1828 election, last four years. Two new names. Those with Adams became known as National Republicans, and those with AJ were Democratic Republicans. AJ called JQA and his supporters a corrupt clique. He called the contest, ‘a struggle between the virtue of the people and executive patronage’. Didn’t discuss policy, but the ‘corrupt bargain’. A lot of hostility against Yankees – ‘Through much of the American hinterland, Yankees were the functional equivalent of Jews in rural Europe.’ Adams drew attention to AJ’s violent history. Killed one man in a duel. Executed plenty. And his sex life, p. 277. Married another man’s wife.

 The election of 1828 was ‘probably the dirtiest in American history.’ Even references to AJ’s mother being a prostitute. The contest was between, ‘J. Q Adams who can write/And Andy Jackson who can fight.’ As well as the personalities there were two different visions: Adams was for improvement, helped by the federal government; Jackson for America as it was, with slavery, anti-central government, and pro opening up new lands for settlement. AJ won handsomely. Analysis. Non partisan politics completely over. While Adams vision of improvement and economic development paused, it didn’t die.

 Chapter Eight: Pursuing the Millennium

 Some believed they could cooperate with God to hasten the Second Coming. As America would bring democracy to the rest of the world, so too they would bring Christ.

 Explanation of post and pre-millennialism. Pre – alien from world around them, then Christ intervenes before the thousand years; post – celebrate the world around them, because the millennium is the goal of human progress.

 Much millenniasm with the Puritans. Sharpened with Second Great Awakening. For the post school, things were getting better. Linked to manifest destiny, US had key role in uplifting the world. Esp Finney. Could do it in three years. For JQA moral reform of US a ‘sacred duty’. Another strong voice = Francis Wayland. US to save other nations from misery and eternal death. Post dominant in this period. Synthesised enlightenment and Protestantism with its emphasis on literacy.

 Captain William Miller (saved by a British retreat in 1814) worked out from Daniel that the Second Coming would be in 1843 or 44. Others engaged in these sorts of calculations. Miller had solid support. Many convinced end would be October 22 1844. Money given away, rush to get baptised…from this group, despite no return, the Seventh Day Adventists.

 US = God’s new Israel. Plus many utopia communities. Owen, 1816 in the UK. Then to US, 1824. Owen failed in the US because he attacked the Bible and marriage. 18 others, by others. Then Albert Brisbane, collectivism. Impacted social thinkers. Showed how US was open to experimentation. Ann Lee, ex Quaker, she was the second incarnation of Christ, gender equality and androgynist. Shakers. Popular, especially in rural areas. Very female. Another, George Rapp, and the Amana Society, background = German pietists.

 Connected to Millennialism, Zionism. Returning the Jews to their homeland. Mordecai Manel Noah; Robert Mathias;

 Also John Noyes – Perfectionist Community. All shared, including spouses. Everyone for everyone. Community called ‘Oneida’.

 Two sects rejected the industrial revolution – the Amish and the Dakota Hutterites.

 IV: All America was an experimental society. And even the non-religious saw America as being special politically. Exceptionalism, universal. Lafayette feted August 16 1824. In toast he said of the US, ‘One day it will save the world’ (Proved true in 1945) Hegel called American the land of the future. Tocqueville, more observant. Underlined the importance of their voluntary associations, especially the churches. He said you cannot separate American’s sense of liberty from their Christianity (p. 307). Other foreign observers – Harriet Martineau – who criticised slavery. Also Frances Wright, tried to start a model society. Frances Trollope – criticised commercial tone, and the spread of different church groups, and deplored slavery. Same for Fanny Kemble – and all the famous visitors. So a huge irony at the heart of American exceptionalism.

 V. Joseph Smith and the Mormons came out of Millennialism. Good coverage re the Nephites a Hebrew kinship group that came to America. The Book of Mormon, ‘a powerful epic written on a grand scale…’  He has about 200 followers. Move to Ohio in 1831, to Kirtland. By 1835 about 4000. Analysis. Near to ‘Yankee folk culture.’ The baddies in the Book of Mormons are the Lammanites who are connected to the Indian tribes. 1833 revelation that Mormons should not drink, smoke, or have hot drinks. (Wife had been complaining of men spitting out tobacco). Then moves to Missouri where they were persecuted by vigilante groups. When the Mormons fought back, there was the Mormon war of 1838, state troops ordered to exterminate the Mormons. They surrender and move on to Nauvoo. (JS was to be executed, but the soldier refused to carry the order out).

 VII. The RCs did not teach Millennium. Symbolic. They did though engage in reaching out to Protestants. Caused concern among evangelical leaders. 1834 a Ursuline Covenant was burned down.

 VIII 1831 Nat Turner uprising, greatest slave rebellion in US history. Nat Turner inspired by Bible and ushering in the Millennium with a great role reversal. Two days – 57 whites killed (46 women and children). Final shoot out at Simon Blunt’s plantation. Whites put it down…murders of blacks and executions. Nat Turner on the run for six weeks. Then tried and executed…said, ‘Was not Christ crucified.’

 Agreed now in Virginia that emancipation = a grave security risk for whites. Virginia divided.

 Chapter 9 Andrew Jackson and His Age

 AJ began in mourning for his wife; no call on outgoing president. Bowed to the crowd, to democracy, but had authoritarian instincts. A ‘man’s man’. Killed a man in a duel in 1806. ‘He never apologized, never forgave, and never shrank from violence. His towering rages became notorious.’ Bought and sold many slaves. Wagered slaves on horse races. Stern Scots-Irish Presbyterianism. Also a Free Mason. More excellent background. Identified himself with the will of the people. Believed in the ‘legitimacy of private violence and the assertion of male honour.’ Populist against ‘corrupt’ government.

 Supporters of AJ promised offices. Especially the post office. Had a kitchen cabinet. Charges against office holders, some fabricated. So, this was the spoils system.

 Van Buren, Secretary of State, Henry Clay, vice president. Sec for war, John Eaton, other women wouldn’t associate with his wife who had been unfaithful to her first husband. Absorbed Washington because Jackson supported her, and expected wives of his cabinet members to do the same. Male honour. But for women, if one gave sexual favours without getting a commitment for support, this threatened all women. Jackson demanded loyalty. Van Buren’s answer was that Eaton had to go, but to save face, all the ministers should resign. Van Buren won battle for AJ’s favour, became heir apparent.

 III. Indian Removal. Report said leave the Indians in peace. Whites wanted their land. Georgia against the Cherokee. Background. AJ determined their land become available for white settlers. But the Cherokee wanted to keep their land. Georgia 1830 said their state laws extended over the Cherokee, the ‘barbarous and savage’ tribes. Clashes. So – the Indian Removal Bill. This was AJ’s vision. Dealing with the tribes, ‘an absurdity’. Different to JQA assimilation policy. AJ – used the world ‘voluntary’ Everyone knew it wouldn’t be. No protection from Washington if a state took over Indian lands. Protestant clergy and women against removal. Jeremiah Evartss. Catherine Beecher (sister of Harriet). Strong campaign. Pro Removal talked of the Indians as being wild animals, ‘incapable of being tamed’. Bill scarped through. As soon as it passed AJ began the process…he saw that the Christian missionaries were his main adversaries, so withdrew funding from mission schools and Georgia governor expelled them from Indian lands. They appealed, to Supreme Court who ruled in their favour. AJ democracy = the extension of white supremacy.

 IV AJ vetoes Maysville Road Bill, because should be left to private enterprise. Vetoed other internal projects. FP: Refused to cooperate in anyway with the British who wanted to subdue the slave trade. Vicious revenge on Sumatra. Aggressive.

 Chapter 10 Battles Over Sovereignty

 AJ – two terms as president – all controversies over sovereignty. Believed he embodied the will of the people and was ready to take on any other body – Congress, the Courts, even nearly the Supreme Court.

 II. Indian removal was about white Western expansion, and cheap land for the speculators. The Indians were thrown out faster than their land could be sold. (this was pure greed). Thomas Hart Benton was the spokesman for the Frontier, with others a push to give the land to the States. Opposed by Daniel Webster, the spokesman for civilisation and for the union against a mere contract between the states. Hayne pro states being able to nullify federal laws. Massive circulation of Webster’s second reply to Hayne = a nationalist doctrine of constitutional origin, p. 371. It was for what Webster was saying that the north fought for in the Civil War. AJ sided with Webster when Carolina challenged Washington. And later made an emotional toast to the union (federal authority was his authority)

 III. AJ deliberately destroyed the banking system of his day. This section is about the ‘Bank War’. AJ v Nicholas Biddle. AJ hostile to the Second Bank of US and Biddle. The bank was doing well, but for AJ it was a rival power centre. Called it ‘The Monster’. 1832 NB applies for a renewal of the national bank’s charter. AJ vetoed it. Attacked it as a threat to the sovereignty of the American people. AJ all about the threat of conspiracies from a silky elite. NB called it ‘a manifesto of anarchy’. The veto raised passions. Now no national currency, and abuse continued in the local banks.

 1828 election, Henry Clay, National Republicans v AJ, Democrat, who won. Anti AJ vote divided between Clay and anti-Masons. Clay a Mason. There was widespread support for the Bank; but more for AJ. Next step was for AJ to take the government deposits out of the Bank and send it to others. Opposed by Duane who was dismissed to AJ could get his way. More resignations. Money scattered among ‘doubtful institutions. This brought about a censure from the Senate led by – Clay, Webster, Calhoun, and Benton. Good men driven from the party. AJ opponents now called themselves Whigs. To attack AJ, Biddle created an economic down turn, p. 391. A credit contraction; but this back fired against him. Lost battle of public opinion. The bank was wound up. State banks didn’t welcome end of national bank. Some known as pet banks. NY became the new financial centre. Not much benefit to ordinary people.

 V. About the 1828 Tariff of Abominations. Planters upset. AJ more laid back over this. Calhoun tried to argue that federal tariffs were not legal. It was up to the separate states. Calhoun was using his talents to immobilise the federal government for the slave economy. Eventually JQA dealt with the tariff problem. Still South Carolina angry. Insisted on nullification…because if the federal government can impose tariffs, then they can impose emancipation. AJ opposed them. Military sent to South Carolina. Threat of civil war – federal government v SC. AJ threatened hanging if a drop of blood was spilt. AJ stopped the crisis, and Clay put a compromise tarrif bill through. Nullifiers lost because other southern states did not rally to their cause. This gave AJ some popularity.

 Chapter 11 Jacksonian Democracy and the Rule of Law

 Opposition to AJ called Whigs, the name that stood for resistance to abuses of executive authority. Whigs – supremacy of the law; Democrats (AJ) supremacy of the sovereign people. AJ’s time plagued by violence.

 II The nullification crisis showed up AJ’s attitude. The supreme court held that Georgia’s imprisonment of two missionaries to the Cherokee Indians, Worcester and Butler, was illegal. AJ not willing to enforce this decision and Van Buren brokered a compromise whereby they were pardoned by Georgia. (Samuel Worcester spent much of his life with the Cherokees, translated much of the Bible into Sequoyah)

 The nullification crisis questioned the supremacy of the supreme court and therefore the federal government. The states were after Indian land. There was a treaty with the Cherokee – they got five million dollars and land in Oklahoma. Scraped through the Senate.

 1838 the removal began, first the Indians were rounded up and sent to detention camps, and then the journey west, the ‘Trail of Tears’. 4 out of 12 thousand died. Same sort of treatment for Creek and Chickasaw tribes. A lot of defrauding went on. Government impotent to stop the ‘speculators’ chicanery’, others think the government actively involved. Some Creeks resisted, war 1836. Easily won, now all removed West. Mortality as high as 50%. Seminoles the most difficult. And then there was Black Hawk’s War were several hundred men women and children were massacred, August 2^nd 1832.

 ‘Andrew Jackson mobilized the federal government behind the expropriation and expulsion of a racial minority whom he considered an impediment to national integrity and economic growth.’ He deliberately encouraged white greed. Obtained 30 million acres of prime farm land.

 The Indian Removal policy was meant to be about treaties and funding deportation. The treaties, ‘notorious for coercion and corruption’. This was racism. This was imperialism. It was not paternalism. And impatience with legal restraints. (The frontier man), imbedded a cavalier like attitude to the law into the culture. The Indian Removal now a cause for shame in the US.

 Slavery – denounced September 1829 by David Walker, a free black. Great quote from his book – p. 423. Turned blacks against colonisation project and for emancipation and equal rights in the USA. Spoke like an OT prophet. Worked with William Lloyd Garrison, set up an anti-slavery paper, ‘The Liberator.’ Became the voice of abolitionist movement, soon a nation-wide abolitionist movement. By 1838 250,000 members, 2% of the then population. Garrison focused on shifting public opinion to see that slavery was a moral evil, which the colonisation movement blurred. Pro slavery people blamed any uprising on outside agitators. Garrison’s group printed 175,000 tracts to send to influential people in the south. Violent reaction in the south. Post office burgled. Tracts burnt. So to AJ, did the federal post office have to deliver abolitionist mail. AJ wanted it to be illegal. Called the abolitionists monsters who wanted to incite civil war. Opposition to this concerned with freedom of expression. This won, but post masters did what they wanted, encouraged by the administration. Inconvenient laws were ignored.

 Explosion of violence across the US in the mid 1830s. It was the supremacy of the ‘Mobocracy’. Law enforcement not strong enough. Even riots against theatres seen to be anti-American. 1849 31 died. P. 432. There were no police. Most common target were the abolitionists and free blacks. The tracts of 1835, many riots. Garrison nearly killed; Elijah Lovejoy died defending his press. NY 1827 three days of riots against the free blacks. 60 buildings gutted. Burning of convent in Charlestown Massachusetts. The vigilante tradition remained. Violence in the south all about slavery. Criticism, and fear of a slave uprising – the answer – violence. Plus the southern sense of manliness, led to violence. So duels.

 All helped by AJ’s image ‘as a hero who stood outside and above the law’.

 Lincoln – consistently opposed to mob rule, and pro the rule of law, he was an evangelist of obedience to the law.

 Chief Justice John Marshall died July 1835, not hopeful the American experiment would last. Tolling for his funeral, the Liberty Bell in Philadelphia cracked. Ominous.

 AJ made many Supreme Court appointments. More from the slave states. For chief AJ nominated Roger Taney who was to opine that African Americans had ‘no rights which the white man was bound to respect’. In favour of state rights. Supported commerce. Devoted to state sov and white supremacy.

 Chapter 12: Reason and Revelation.

 April 1829 debate between Robert Owen and Alexander Campbell re Owen’s assertion that ‘all the religions of the world have been founded on the ignorance of mankind’. Alexander argued Christianity essential for the dignity of people – and social progress. Audiences of 1200. At end only three supported Owen. America was for Christianity and the Bible – and science and knowledge.

 American Bible Society – more than 21 million copies of the Bible from 1816 to 1866. In 1860 population of the US only 31 million. Bible and belief in sola scriptura integral to US culture. Theological discussion flourished. Major intellectuals like Natanial Taylor, Henry Ware, Charles Hodge (Yale, Andover, Princeton) all believed in the Bible’s divine authority and that reason could be applied to its text. Some against insistence on the conversion experience. There were major divisions, over social reform, Calvinism, the Trinity.

 New England’s school system the daughter of the Reformation. As low taxes a high priority, state education suffered, so the church stepped into the breach. When people moved West, they took this mind-set with them. This was both for primary and secondary education. For Africans church education even more important. Some masters taught them. Kept away from state schools. And in the north segregated. Church also involved in educating Indians; opposed by state of Georgia.

 Only about 40% of white children went to school; but 80% could read – because taught at home.

 Horace Mann great campaigner in Massachusetts. Also teacher training colleges. Had an ideology – patriotic virtue, responsible character, virtue. It was assumed this included religion. (so the later separation was an innovation). It would be the relgion of the local majority – Protestant Christianity.

 In the 1840 census only 9% of white American illiterate; with Africans rose to 22%, still way below England with 41%.

 State reluctant also with higher education. Jefferson founded University of Virginia, initially not very impressive from an academic point of view. NY failed – till 2WW. Michigan not till 1841. However at the time of independence US had nine colleges with religious connections. Has a list of institutes of higher education p 460 and 461. In 1848 there were 113 – only 16 were state institutions, the rest were Christians, either Protestant or RC.

 Good record on education girls. Literacy rate = to men, again Christianity played an important role in this, and the US pioneered higher education for women. This was genuine American exceptionalism (except only for whites) and it was carried around the world by the missionaries.

 Everyone believed in intelligent design, this was the foundation for enlightenment thinkers, nature seen as a revelation of God. William Paley’s ‘Natural Theology’ very popular, published 1805. Benjamin Silliman from Yale stated that science tells us the ‘thoughts of God.’ Silliman and others also argued there was no scientific contradiction in the Bible, so the days in Genesis were eons of time. Different species because God had ‘performed successive acts of creation’ (Georges Cuvier). Louis Agassiz of Harvard defended special creation after Darwin published. Science popular with middle classes in US, especially natural history. Often experts were amateurs from humble origins. Important to classify. Its popularity reflected improvements in communication. Government involved – for coastal surveys, and James Smithson, an Englishman, left money to the US government to establish a scientific institution, so the Smithsonian Institution, with Joseph Henry as its first CEO, leading physicist.

 Young America gave a robust religious endorsement to scientific knowledge. As this lifted living standards, so this was evidence of Christ’s Second Coming being nearer.

 Cholera arrived in NY and New Orleans in 1832. A day of prayer called for, but AJ opposed because it would violate the separation of church and state. Most churches responded anyway. Medicine not well developed. A lot of doctors spread infections. Wendell Holmes, professor of medicine at Harvard, if all our knowledge thrown into the sea, ‘all the better for mankind, and all the worse for the fishes.’ Patients tried alternatives, like homeopathy. Some, like Sylvester Graham, a Presbyterian minister advocated healthy eating and living to avoid disease. A John Kellog followed Graham’s emphasis on a good diet and invented corn-flakes. The sick mainly stayed at home; hospitals for the poor. Slaves, even worse off. Some were experimented on. Health dropped – life expectancy was 47. Dentistry a little better. 1846 anaesthesia arrived; before ‘about a quarter of amputees died from the shock or infection.’

 Bible prominent position for discussions on morality – also for slavery. 1837 Weld, ‘The Bible Against Slavery’. Quoted Acts 17:26 – all nations from one blood. You don’t enslave brothers. Reply from Genesis 9:25 ‘Cursed be Canaan…’ Plus Israel practised slavery, and there were legal rules. Abolitionists – polygamy in OT, not now. Pro slavery – Paul and Philemon. This was a specifics (pro) versus tenor (against) argument. This endless discussion among Protestants proved to the Jesuits the chaos when there is no single spiritual authority.

 Some drove with the economic argument – emancipation too expensive. Abolition only to be considered when slavery ceased to be profitable. By the 1830s the lines were generally drawn – abolitionists in the north, defenders in the south.

 The churches tended to compromise. In 1818 Presbyterians said slavery was ‘utterly inconsistent with the law of God.’ By 1830s though their clergy sided with the defenders of the ‘peculiar institution’ and put the focus on temperance and education. Did not see slavery as a positive good, but refused to call it intrinsically immoral. When in 1844 the national Methodist church refused to accept a man as bishop whose wife had inherited slaves, the Southern Methodist Church seceded. RC’s also did not condemn slavery. A lot of RCs were immigrants and faced appalling poverty. They wanted the church’s attention, and resented it going to the blacks.

 Calhoun argued for slavery as a positive good, theory of separate races (later adopted by South Africa) which stopped race conflict. He has been called, ‘the Marx of the Master Class.’ This argument did well in South Carolina. And who was to say that their society was more evil than the one in England or the North?

 Calhoun’s argument was pure racism, that the negroes were inferior and that it was in society’s interest to keep them enslaved. Josiah Nott even said they were a separate creation, i.e. not from Adam.

 Conclusion on the Bible

 ‘Without resolving moral controversy, it endowed moral standards and rational discourse with each other’s authority, strengthening both.’

 Chapter 13

Jackson’s Third Term

 AJ’s power personal not institutional. So, AJ’s heir, Martin Van Buren, so, AJ’s ‘third term’. MB first man born a US citizen to be president; others were born British citizens. MB full of genial social skills, deeply conservative. Saw parties as a legitimate feature of politics. He only gets 50.9% of the popular vote.

 John Quincy Adams alarmed at more of Jackson like politics, because this was popularism. And that for AJ meant whatever AJ wanted. So with MB it continued to be expansion and the protection of slavery, limited government and free trade MB served what AJ had created. This meant continuing opposition to a national bank.

 Discussion of the press, p. 494, including Anne Royall who criticised evangelicals and was tried for scolding women on the way to church in Washington. Key AJ journalist was Amos Kendall. He controlled appointments to the post office.

 Suffrage was about race and gender – white and male in; female and black out.

 Final months of AJ’s time – economic prosperity. Cotton prices up. Mexican silver in. This worried AJ as he believed in hard work and thrift, not easy money. Hated speculation. The national debt was paid off, and revenue kept on coming in. Clay proposed sending it to the states to use for the transport revolution. A form of this gets through.

 AJ’s final message – p.500. against ‘monied power’ and the spirit of speculation. For the rest of the antebellum time the Democrats sheltered slavery from criticism.

 MB arrived in the White House and the economic panic of 1837 swiftly followed. Caused by lack of capital in the US and too dependent on foreign flow of money, so when the UK needed money because of a poor harvest, credit was curtailed. Democrats blamed the banks; Whigs Jackson. Certainly AJ’s abolition of the national bank didn’t help. Repercussion’s throughout the economy, but no relief from MB.

 MB determined to protect slavery, so secured the south. White supremacy was the creed. And many in the north saw it as someone else’s problem. Not concerned. Working class whites in the north did not want freed slaves competing for their jobs. Only the Whigs had anti-slavery voices. None in the Democrats – if there were, they were silenced.

 The gag rule stopped the discussion of abolitionist petitions in Congress, on the basis that slavery was not under Congress’s authority. This was opposed by John Quincy Adams and he used all sorts of devices to get around the gag rule. So there were more petitions, because of JQA’s support. All of this of course caused more publicity, and sympathy for the abolitionists, because everyone wanted the right to be able to petition.

 Van Buren also kept AJ’s policy on Indian Removal and the Trail of Tears happened on his watch. And the war with the Seminoles who took in runaway slaves, so it was a negro, not an Indian war really. It dragged on for seven years. And grim treachery, when Indians and negros were captured under the flag of truce. This led to debate in Congress. Osceoloa was the leader. Honoured today. A lot of expense and death and not much achieved.

 Van Buren did not support some AJ rebels in Canada.

 P520 grim story of Sengbe Pieh from Sierre Leone being captured and sold into slavery in Cuba. He picked his lock on the Amistad, overcame the crew and tried to get to Africa. Ended up in Long Island, then under arrest in a New Haven jail.  Abolitionists found good lawyer. Because of the emomtional power of their testimonoy the pro slavery judge acquitted them. But VB’s administration appealed. He wanted to be seen to be crushing slave rebellions. Then JQA came to the court and this ex president put the sitting president on trial. The Supreme Court declared them free. Abolitionist raised money for their return journey to Africa. They wrote a letter to thank JQA.

 ‘Most respected Sir – the Mendi people give you thanks for all your kindness to them. They will pray for you as long as you live, Mr Adams. We are about to go to Africa…We will take the Bible with us. It has been a precious book in prison, and we love to read it now we are free. ‘

 VB then ‘played out events that AJ had set in motion.’

 Chapter 14

The New Economy

 Fascinating story about John Bull leaving his subsistence farm to get some education and become a lawyer in NY. Later made a fortune speculating in land. Urban pop increased X5 1820 – 1850. Aided by better agricultural methods, and transportation. Cities also swelled because of immigrants. 1820s and 30s, 667,000 came. Cities grew less in the South.

 Cities grew along the waterways. Law very shaky, lot of rioting and crime. 1839 NY diarists – ‘the City is infested by gangs of hardened wretches.’ 10,000 prostitutes in NY in 1840s. Paid well, gave women a measure of independence. In the South use was made of enslaved women.

 Grim danger of fire in these urban areas, especially when fire companies were made up of rival gangs. NY Dec 16 1835. All very unhygienic. NY death rate twice that of London’s. Worse slum was in Manhattan. People came because of the wages. And autonomy.

 Father of America’s industrial revolution = Eli Whitney, had a gun factory in Connecticut. Tried to apply the principle of standardized and interchangeable parts. Army = large market, so a spur. Another pioneer = Eli Terry who mass produced cheap clocks. All over rural areas. Water power crucial. New England led the way here because of its universal public education, so literacy levels high. 1831 the first reaper for farming. All aided by transportation. So mass production of shoes began, played ‘havoc’ with artisan system.

 Wealth not evenly distributed. Southern white males riches because of slavery. In the north 5% of white males owned 70% of property. So working class discontent. Robert Owen’s socialism espoused. Thomas Skidmore, ‘most radical agitator of all’.

Confiscation of all property. Working Men’s Parties soon disappeared because there was an endless supply of jobs in the cities and there was plenty of social mobility, so blurring the lines.

 Democrats liked to pose as the supporters of the working classes against the ‘swamp’ of elitists…this was the white racist working class. Whigs said there was no class. Democratic success depended on an emphasis on white supremacy, and said abolitionist forgot the white wage slaves. Working class clubs kept blacks out.

 Women became more autonomous by working even in the mills. Made up a third of the manufacturing work force in the 1830s.

 There were strikes in Pennsylvania – e.g. for a ten-hour day…and this was confirmed by VB for federal workers.

Industry also exploited slave labour when possible – in coal, iron and gold mines, sugar refineries and others. And public works such as digging canals. About 5% of the entire slave population. Southerners generally hesitant to risk investing in manufacturing, preferred to stay with cotton which they understood – and they preached the agrarian ideal against the vice of city life.

 There was labour unrest also on the farms – and agriculture still the dominant activity. If poor income, rent strike. Ended when good times returned in the 1840s. A massive work force were the women and children working on the farms. Farm girls preferred to be called ‘help’, not servants. Strong gender roles.

 Little government intervention in the bad times. While Christian humanitarianism impacted judicial system to look out for the underdog – not so for slavery. Slaves were commercial items to be ‘sold, mortgaged, bequeathed, insured, and hired out.’ All under the supervision of the legal system. ‘Congress never regulated the interstate slave trade, though it possessed the right to do so.’

 Main government action was to invest in the new railroads. George Stephenson, the unschooled son of a mechanic had changed the world.’ John Stevens pioneered steam locomotives, 1825, in the USA. So, AJ arrived in 1829 in a carriage, and left eight years later on a train. Took off in the 1830s. State governments contributed 45% of the capital for railroads. Huge impact on American lives. Year round, no winter freezing like the canals. There were accidents, JQA in one. Speeded up the industrial revolution. And for the expansion to the West.

 ‘Here, gliding cars, like shooting meteors run

The mighty shuttle binding the Sates as one

 This helped link the North more with the West, and weaken ties with the South. This would have implications as the shadow of the Civil War grew.

 Chapter 15

The Whigs and their age

 The inauguration of William Henry Harrison, 1844. Indirectly rebuked AJ re claiming to speak in the name of democracy. Educated, Virginian gentleman. Son of Benjamin Harrison, a signer of the declaration. Distinguished soldier. Believed in the extension of slavery. Beat Clay at the Convention who didn’t accept vice – given to Tyler, mistake. Issue on election was soft money and government intervention (Whig) v hard money and laissez faire (Democrat). Depression therefore helped the Whigs, who had more a sense of reason on their side. Over 80% turnout. Whigs helped by press. Harrison helped in the south by his desire to expand slavery. Whig majorities usually commercial areas. Harrison also courted the evangelical vote. Some evangelicals – led by Finney and Beecher wanted America to improve. Like the Whigs. Non-evangelicals wanted racist America to expand. Like the Democrats. Contrasted his record as a soldier with AJ’s bloodier one. The more particular Chrisitan groups, seeking to preserve their own version of things, tended towards the Democrats. All the denominations developed a reputation for the party they voted for. See p. 581. RCs tended to be Democrat. Sometimes because of mutual animosity.

 Democrats and Whigs had rival visions for America.

 Democrats liked America the way it was with agriculture predominant. Celebrated popular sovereignty = white men. Against central planning or one group interfering with another. Only wanted the government to be strong enough to deliver more land for the white farmer.

 Whigs wanted country to develop economically so commerce and industry took its place alongside agriculture. Believed in cultural homogeneity – i.e. one moral outlook for all. Pro liberty for developing the individual. (Democrats negative = freeing the white man from an oppressor). Ambition more qualitative than quantitative.

 Democrats relied on emotionalism, and the constant of white supremacy. JQA saw what was at the heart of their agenda – ‘Slavery stands aghast at the prospective promotion of the general welfare.’

 Whigs had to compromise with slavery to remain a national party, always less stridently racist than the Democrats who questioned even the humanity of the blacks.

 Henry Clay framed his support for slavery in terms of the danger of emancipation to the white race. ‘The liberty of the descendants of Africa in the United States is incompatible with the safety and liberty of the European descendants.’ This scuppered his support in the north. When warned about this, Clay responded, ‘I would rather be right than be president’ A famous quote.

 Harrison died just one month after his inauguration. Charles Finney preached one of his finest sermons for the day of prayer and fasting that was called for then. John Tyler, aged 51 became president, also ‘from the tidewater aristocracy’. Tyler – a follower of Jefferson. For state rights and national expansion. So…quite a bit in common with the Democrats. He had joined the Whigs only because he was disturbed by AJ. So – vetoed national bank bill, said such a bank was unconstitutional. Passed land bill – cheap land in the West for settlers. No increase on duties. Tyler’s approach inflicted great losses on the Whig party, seen as a divided party.

 One of Harrison’s supporters was Abraham Lincoln. Whig values suited his own. Son of a farmer – had struck out on his own. Ardent supporter of internal improvements. So, the ‘Illinois system’. Pro a national bank. Vision of an integrated nation, not loosely connected white communities. Married Mary Todd – from a prominent Whig family. Christian influence. Supported temperance movement – the self-controlled person, not the wild AJ frontier type. His millennium was the supremacy of reason over passion.

 Whigs pro the rule of law, against Democrats support for the ‘popular will’ even if illegal, and especially if directed against a despised racial minuity. 184 Thomas Dorr of Rhode Island called for universal suffrage, expelled by the Whigs, taken in by the Democrats. Dorr set up a parallel constitution, with himself as the state governor. The actual governor, Samuel King, requested help from Tyler. He sent a few. Dorr arrested, sentenced of life imprisonment, released after a year. For the democrats Dorr was a popular hero; for the Whigs a dangerous man.

 Dorothea Dix and the campaign to help the insane who found themselves in prison – she asked for state run asylums. Travelled all over the US. Core support from the Whigs. Shows growth of women’s participation in politics. – again more with the Whigs. Democrats disapproved. Their constituencies more into manliness. Women very involved in the printed media. Over 600 female editors in 19^th US. Writers too – e.g. Sarah Hale (p. 608). She kept women in touch with the wider world.

 Gag rule against petitions again – it just won through. JQA presented a petition from 42 residents of Haverhill asking for the dissolution of the union to free them from complicity with slavery. JQA presented the petition – as a duty. For this he was censured. JQA turned his trial into his vindication. Censure dropped. JQA a hero. The base of the anti-slavery movement was widening.

 Tyler ruined the chances of the Whigs in 1841. No national bank. However the Whigs – like Dx, Hale, Lincoln, and many others campaigning for a fairer and more integrated America deserve to be remembered.

 Chapter 16

American Renaissance.

 Starts with a fascinating paragraph re William Channing’s sermon in Baltimore, May 5 1819 = Bible as progressive revelation, working with the enlightenment and science. Strongly opposed to Calvinism (and the Trinity). Found the idea of God willing the wicked to damnation repulsive. Sermon reflected simmering dissatisfaction with the dominant Calvinism in New England. Began a long debate between orthodox Calvinists and liberal Unitarians. Channing’s sermon widely distributed. Channing a great liberal reformer – anti slavery and imperialism. Wanted to realise the divine in all of humanity, plus respect for empirical evidence. Saw themselves as Renaissance humanists, and he and his followers inspired an American Renaissance. E.G. Samuel Howe’s study of deaf and blind Laura Bridgman. Hoped to refute doctrine of man’s total depravity. She became a devout Baptist. Channing’s church didn’t grow very large, but his views resonated with US urban middle classes, and had lasting impact into the 20^th when liberalism dominated some Protestant circles.

 From Concord in the 1830s sprang a golden age of American literature – Ralph Emerson, Henry Thoreau, Nathaniel Hawthorne…Concord, both rural – but near Boston…part of a club known as ‘The Transcendentalists’. Saw themselves initiating a new world order. All Unitarians, or ex Unitarians. Emerson began as a pastor of a Unitarian Church in Boston. Became a public intellectual – earned his living on the lecture circuit. Started a new nature religion. Everyone in touch with the divine. And so faith came before miracles or any belief of fact in the Bible. Margaret Fuller also very influential. Keen to link American readers up with European writers like Goethe and Coleridge. Very pro women’s movement. Worked on New York Tribune. And Henry Thoreau, patron saint for environmentalism and civil disobedience. Into simple living in a cabin. Spent a night in prison for not paying a tax, wrote a book about resistance to government. The individual conscience must trump the law.

 The transcendentalists inclusive – for women, the Indian and the blacks. And once free – urged Americans towards integrity. Great literary influence.

 Great rise in reading of novels. By 1840s US probably had largest literate population in the world. Everyone was reading. Novels often written by women. Also a lot of religious and self-improvement books. Unitarians great promoters, while Calvinists suspicious. Best route was to bring Christian morality into fiction, as Henry Longfellow did. Some went lower – many readers liked frontier violence. Edgar A Poe argued that art was fine just as art. Didn’t need a moral. Observation of the pain of life, so The Raven (1844). Could be financially challenging, e.g. Hawthorne’s journey. Not helped by there being no international copyright so publishers could print British authors. Melville from this era – gave us Moby Dick.

 Theatre was under a moral cloud. Shakespear got through. Working classes like a run-down theatre. Distinctly American was the minstrel show which caricatured blacks, and so popular with Democrats. Irony was that the most original music came from the slaves – everyone acknowledged that. The piano became the centre of family life.

 Importance of writings of those who had escaped from slavery, example of Frederick Douglas. Hence hostility of slave owners to education of the blacks. Slavery and literacy were incompatible. However Christianity – also strong in the slave owners – brought the Bible and literacy.

 Two groups of abolitionists – Garrison (newspaper editor), broader, more radical connected things to women’s rights; and evangelicals, Lewis Tappan. Some remained independent. Garrison rejected all politics as corrupt. Tappan felt southerners could be influenced. Some formed a new party, the Liberty Party. (Vote as you pray and pray as you vote). No success. Major battle between abolitionists and federal government over escaped slaves. Douglas very critical of the compromising churches, and put more faith in a new America as a ‘melting pot’ out of which would come a better world. Douglas committed to self-improvement – like Lincoln.

 Abolitionists insisted on individual moral responsibility. So, inheriting slavery was no excuse. This was the at the heart of the American Renaissance, faith in the human conscience. Famous poem by James Lowell underlines this – ‘Once to every man and nation/Comes the moment to decide.’

 Chapter 17

Texas, Tyler, and Telegraph

 Erasmo Seguin and Stephen Austin, two key figures in Texas history. Texas first with Spain, then in 1821 Mexico became independent. So – Texas was Mexico. Austin agent to bring in white settlers from the US. Some were squatters. By 1830 the settlers outnumber the Mexicans by two to one. Setters didn’t convert to RC; but didn’t build Protestant churches. Enjoy a measure of self-government. But soon Mexico aware of the US interest in Texas, kept on wanting to buy the state. By 1835 whites outnumber Mexicans by 10 - 1.

 1833 military hero Santa Anna dictator of Texas. There was an Anglo revolt, 1835 – over trading matters. Reported in a sensational way by the US press. Some keen to make the country safe for slavery. So north and south reported the conflict very differently. There was a slave uprising, brutally suppressed. Anglos set up a state within the state, didn’t go well, a ‘descent into anarchy’.

 War came to Alamo (March 1836) and those famous names – William Travis, Jim Bowie, Davy Crockett. Massively out-numbered by Santa Anna. All men killed, some brutally. A few women and some slaves spared. Another Texan force led by James Fannian also defeated, and all prisoners ordered to the sword by Santa Anna. Now all the settlers wanted was independence; and some annexation by the US. So the original Hispanics were now mistrusted in their own land, for the new arrivals into Texas were all believers in white supremacy.

 Next battle saw Sam Houston take on Santa Anna near the present-day city of Houston. Mexicans fled, Americans in no mood to take prisoners after Alamo. Though some taken, including Santa Anna. For his life he had to retreat beyond the Rio Grande, this was the Velasco agreement. Of course not accepted by Mexican parliament, so there was intermittent fighting. Settlers set up their capital at Austin to show their westward aspirations. 1832 Sam Austin is Texas president. Landslide. AJ said he was neutral, but gave plenty of supplies to Austin and Mexico knew that if they tried to re-conquer lost lands, they would have to take on the US. AJ not interested in an independent Texas, wanted to annex it. North opposed because this would be an extension of slavery. Van Buren didn’t support annexation.

 Texas independent for ten years. Immigration high, now slavery legal, and the slave population grew fast. Annexation always there; as was an alliance with Britain, which alarmed Washington and so made them even keener. For UK stability most important – for investments. There were other UK – US issues, like the ‘Caroline’ ship that had helped Canadian rebels. The British seized the ship, set it on fire, and threw it over the Niagara Falls. US furious. Webster and Ashburton sorted this out. UK gave an apology. Or the ‘Creole’, slave rebels going to the Bahamas. Webster got financial compensation. Also boundary issue with Canada.

 Now there was Texas. US wants to annex, UK against slavery, had its own designs.  So Abel Upshur at the State Department raised ‘the latent Anglophobia of the American public’. A secret treaty with Texas was drawn up. Now Secretary of State was Calhoun – more radical pro slavery politician. Treaty leaked to the press. Senate opposed annexation because Calhoun was making the protection of slavery the number one reason. Tyler (president) badly hurt.

 Election of 1844. Whig Party nomination to Henry Clay (moderately anti-slavery). His running mate was a well-known Christian, Theodore Frelinghuysen, President of the Bible Society and more. Democratic nomination went to James Knox Polk, a slave owner form Tennessee. Very expansionist – for Oregon and Texas. Got dying AJ’s support. Democrats argued for Texas on economic grounds for the Northerners. When slaves freed they could go to Texas, if no Texas, they would come north and take away jobs. Perverse, but popular. Tyler withdrew.

 Territorial expansion at centre of election. And Clay’s initial opposition to Texas annexation cost him, but helped by his support for the tariff. Popular vote very close. Polk just won. AJ to die a happy man. JQA depressed. If Clay had been elected, US would have been spared much pain, and ‘probably’ avoided the Civil War.

 1844 Washington wanted to know what was happening at the Baltimore party conventions and so money given for a telegraph wires to be put up. So the news re Clay’s nomination got to Washington ahead of the train. New era. Everyone came to watch ‘the wire’. Background on Morse, p. 692. Telegraph lines expected to be a federal affair, but when Polk won it went to private enterprise. Lot of quick cheap work. Mainly for commercial use, not social, but was a ‘major facilitator of American nationalism and continental ambition.’

 Texas annexation now passed Congress and the Senate and slave owners were reassured and the price of slaves rose by 21%.

 Chapter 18

Westward the Star of Empire

 James Knox Polk inauguration March 4, 1845. Speech condemned abolitionism and the national bank. Not a man of the arts. His wife, staunch Presbyterian, dancing and card playing banned in their White House. As president Polk purchased 19 slaves, teenagers, separated from their parents.

 Manifest destiny – term coined by Democratic Review in context of Texas. = white supremacy expansion over the whole continent. This was connected to American millennialism. US were like the Israelites of old. So, ‘The Star of Empire’. History of political liberty connected to Protestantism. Popular celebration of American imperialism. Gave impression that the land was empty, waiting to be filled. Deceit. There were Native Americans and Mexicans already living there. And this expansion also meant the expansion of slavery. So the policy involved a. forcing out settled populations and b. bringing in slaves. So there was opposition. Whigs saw American development as being qualitative economic improvement. Whigs though were all for cultural and trade expansion – especially keen to protect Protestant mission against Roman Catholics. Two types = two types of manliness – martial and restrained. American destiny did not happen automatically; it happened because of deliberate political choice with the support of the voters.

 Polk had four objectives: settling Oregon question; taking California; reducing the tariff; establishing an Independent Treasury. And so – ‘most successful president the US has ever had’. Achieved all in a single term.

 Mexico held California. After independence from Spain many speculators and immigrants. Rose up against Santa Anna. Mexican army, ‘feeble presence’. Again US wanted to buy California. It was another Texas waiting to happen.

 Hudson Bay Company ruled most of Canada. Fur trade was massive. Thousands of settles pour into Oregon. Doubt re US being able to control this area at first – changed by railroad and the telegraph. By 1844 five thousand Americans there. Long assumption that Oregon would be divided by the British and the US. Polk pretended to want all, but was always willing to compromise. But he couldn’t be seen to be responsible for that compromise. There was bluster at the start of the negotiations. But Polk never wanted to go to war over Oregon with Britain – an important country for investment, and a market for US cotton. And there was Mexico. The Senate went for a compromise, which Polk supported, but was able to say it was the Senate’s to keep his supporters happy. Played to the nationalistic press; sensible compromise in the meeting room.

 The. Joseph Smith first tries to build Zion in a hamlet called Commerce (Nauvoo) in Illinois on Mississippi River. JS the ruler. Grew to 10,000 by 1842. Tended to be Democratic. JS runs for president. Accurately accused of polygamy by a newspaper in Commerce and JS had the paper’s press destroyed. Fury in Illinois. Armed gangs faced each other. Illinois governor, Thomas Ford, pacified the armed mobs, and made sure JS was arrested for the destruction of the press. He was murdered in prison – June 27, 1844. JS succeeded by Brigham Young, ‘practical, decisive, and gruff.’ He led the exodus to the West, began Feb 1846. Military style discipline. Stretched out 16,000 people in camps along the way. Eventually came to Salt Lake City. Practised plural marriage. JS married between 28 – 33 women, 11 already married to another man. Bingham Young married 19 wives, eventually 27. Had 56 children.

 War with Mexico (again). Mexico saw Texas annexation as an act of aggression. Though Mexico had to accept it as could not afford war, there was dispute over the boundary. So Polk made sure there was a military presence on the ground and told if the Mexicans came over the Rio Grande, that was an invasion. Polk actually wanted a war with Mexico so he could take California. He knew the Mexicans wouldn’t sell it. Played on fear – unfounded – that the Britain interested in California. Polk’s enjoy to Mexico, Slidell, not received. Polkk ordered his man at the border, Taylor, to advance to the Rio Grande. One officer wrote ‘We have not one particle of right to be here’. Polk had to balance the timing with Oregon carefully. The compromise there would annoy a part of his constituency, so he had to sweep them quickly into another patriotic cause, so he needed the war just before the ink on the Oregon settlement dried. When he started the war in Mexico, minimum discussion in Congress. JQA opposed. Whigs reluctant to oppose the war because of their ‘reading of public opinion’. May 13 1846 state of war announced.

 Chapter 19

The War Against Mexico

 US – Zachary Taylor; Mexico – Mariano Arista. First battle May, 1846 Palo Alto. Taylor won, superiority of fire power. Industry and technology. Comparison with civil war. Discussion about women in both armies. Free black slaves not allowed in the US army (but in the navy). War rapidly expanded the telegraph system. US thought the war would be easy. Initial US army, regulars, but then volunteers who were not much help. The war helped the image of the professional army, and as most officers were Whigs, this didn’t please Polk the Democrat. And he certainly didn’t want any military heroes to threaten his power. So Polk disparaged both Taylor and Winfield Scott’s achievements. Taylor’s achievements still not properly recognised because Americans think expansion happened naturally. A lot of desertions from the US army – promise of land from Mexico. Catholics. 8.3%.

 As soon as war broke out Polk was after California. Both navy and army were poised for action. Sloat, navy; Fremont, army. Fremont something of an AJ figure, once he knew what the president wanted took the law into his own hands. Among fifteen thousand Spaniards, and even more Indians there were only 800 American settlers. Small rebel group declared independence of California from town of Sonoma. Then Sloan took Monterey and said California was annexed. Another ship took over San Francisco. Fremont joined by Robert Stockton and completely alienated the inhabitants. In late September 46, they rise up against the occupation. This was a fiercer war. Eventually F and S won Battle of Los Angeles and signed a peace treaty. When official governor arrived to take over, problem with F.

 Polk also wanted New Mexico. Kearney the commander. Left from present day Kansas. Preferred not to fight, but to show his force. Wanted trade from Santa Fe to continue. Successful. Governor probably bribed, Left, US marched into Santa Fe without a shot being fired. Occupied. Kept as many Mexican officials in power as possible. Still an uprising in Jan 1847. Crushed. 16 hanged. Four years of military dictatorship.

 War with Mexico not popular among wider electorate. Whigs consistently opposed. Accused Polk of abusing his powers. Only Congress can declare war. Democrats also embarrassed by Polk’s militarism. Some democrats also upset by tariffs. Polk’s war made the administration look very Southern, because it meant the extension of slavery. And dismay over Polk’s deal with Santa Anna. Allowed him back to Mexico for him to sign a treaty – but SA betrayed Polk. And his charisma prolonged the war. When Polk asked for money, demand that there should be no extension of slavery. This would be the dividing line between north and south – including northern democrats. A lot of racism involved in the expansion, so Captain William Henry re Mexico – ‘It certainly was never intended that this lovely land should remain in the hands of an ignorant and degenerate race’. Racial presumption wide-spread. Whigs did well in the mid-terms.

 Very bad hygiene in US army. Many die of disease. Taylor also tolerated ill discipline among volunteers, so turned a blind eye to pillage. One shot a woman, just to test his rifle. Officers took no notice. Manifest destiny, American expansionism racism and violence all belonged together. ‘The ideology of American expansion seemed to legitimate the assertion of force by the strong and the destruction or expropriation of those who resisted.’

 Battle of Monterrey – US won after four days. Taylor and Worth heroes for US public, but not Polk. Furious re an armistice. No thanks to Taylor. After this clear this would be a much longer war. Impossible to invade Mexico City by land – had to be an amphibious landing in the Gulf. Headed by Winfield Scott who took men from Taylor’s army. Santa Anna raised a massive 20,000 army to crush Taylor. Lost about five thousand in the march. Still a strong force. Taylor refused to surrender. Largest battle, Buena Vista. Massive Mexican attacks; repulsed by superior US firepower. SA needed to rest his soldiers. Looked like a tactical draw, but really a US victory. Taylor back to Monterrey.

 Winfield Scott already a famous war hero in America, only AJ more famous. The ‘quintessential professional soldier’. A Whig. Believed in institutions. His invasion most dramatic in US history till the D Day landings. Delivered 10,000 troops just south of Veracruz. March 1849, attack on the city. Constant bombardment. Surrendered. No help from Mexico City because a revolt had broken out against Santa Anna’s deputy who wanted to take the church’s assets. RC church funded a revolt. This stopped the aid getting to Veracruz. Scott now marches on Mexico City. Robert E Lee finds an obscure way through to place guns which helped victory at Cerro Gordo. 4,000 Mexican prisoners taken. Took another four months for Scott to reach Mexico City. Lot of guerrilla warfare against his supply line. Eventually gets to the capital. Santa Anna again is opponent. Mexico City is an island in the middle of marshes. Again Lee finds an unexpected route in. Fighting focused on Franciscan monastery of San Mateo. US won because Mexicans ran out of ammunition. After a respite – attack on Mexico City. US took castle over looking city, Colegio Militar. As the US flag went up at the castle, so many deserters were hanged. Soon the US flag was flying in Mexico City. John Quitman named military governor. Santa Anna went to Jamaica.

 Winfield Scott – ‘one of the most monumental military victories of the 19^th C’ Wellington called his campaign, ‘unsurpassed in military annals’, Scott, ‘the greatest living soldier.’ But Polk dismissed Scott on January 13, 1848. Polk feared a Whig soldier hero; and Scott had tried to court martial two generals, one was Gideon Pillow who disobeyed his orders. It was Pillow who dined in the White House.

 Chapter 20

The Revolutions of 1948

 USA celebrated European rebellions as part of their manifest destiny in leading the way for democracy and freedom. The tabloids crowed – ‘The finger of revolution points to us as its example, it pillars of fire.’ The more perceptive saw that it was America that need a revolution to get rid of slavery. Protestants saw overthrow of Catholicism; RCs of course differed. Democrats pro because = the sov of the people. Whigs more ambivalent, loathed mob rule. Cotton hit, rose once authoritarianism returned. So US had more interest in European stability than freedom.

 For the USA 1848 = the year of ending the war with Mexico and gaining a vast Pacific empire. Many RCs; and Irish famine immigrants, RCs. Began shift to more pluralistic society. The north and south fell to arguing over what the war victory meant – and 12 years later the civil war began.

 December 1847 Polk asserted that Mexico had to give territory for starting the way. Whigs replied: how did they start the war? Leading spokesman for the Whigs was ‘a lanky congressman from Springfield, Illinois, named Abraham Lincoln.’ So Congress charged that Polk had started the war ‘unnecessarily and unconstitutionally.’ Attempt to stop the war failed. Polk went on with his land grabbing treaties, and taking money from the lands the soldiers occupied. There were some calls for the annexation of all of Mexico. But ‘white supremacy’ didn’t like the idea of so much mixed race becoming American. Calhoun – ‘Ours is the government of the white man.’ Lincoln kept up the pressure. ‘The blood of this war, like the blood of Abel, is crying to Heaven against him.’

 The peace commissioner for Mexico was Nicholas Trist, protégé of TJ, sec to AJ. Kept secret because the terms he had made it clear the war was about territory. But cover blown and Scott furious when Trist arrived in Veracruz. Basic decency kept this together. Polk wanted Alta California and New Mexico, plus the Rio Grande boundary for Texas, and a canal route across Tehuantepec. The last two became must haves after US victories, and more of north Mexico. To get this Polk wanted Mexico to suffer occupation, and so ordered Trist out, i.e. to stop negotiating. Let the Mexicans sue for peace. But Trist didn’t obey, and continued to negotiate, saying that if the Mexicans didn’t accept the earlier terms, it would get worse. The Mexicans believed him and accepted. Trist worked alone on the details. Inaccurate maps. Gave 15 million dollars. (Polk had allowed up to 20). Signed February 2 1848. Trist was actually ashamed of the war. Polk outraged. Blamed Scott. But took it to the Senate. Went through. Polk got his original objectives and became the President who extended US territory more than any other president. The people who suffered most were the Indians of California, seen as obstacles to progress. Talk of a war of extermination will the Indians ceased to exist. From 1845 – 55 their numbers fell from 150,000 to 50,000. The new territory exacerbated the slave question – would the evil be allowed to spread? Last word JQA spoke in Congess was against the war. Died 23 Feb, 1848. Lincolon woujld fulfil JQA’s prophecy that slavery would either cause a break up of the US or war.

 Jan 1848 gold discovered in California. The rush. Three quarters of the men of San Francisco went. Promoted by Polk to justify his war. Many took the overland route – 70,000 1849 – 50. So, California’s pop rapidly grew. Diverse. Days of the Rush – plenty of prostitution, gambling and violence.  Amount of money to be made fell over the years. Black slaves kept out. Cheap labour opposed – Indian, Chinese. But still became most diverse state.

 Irish famine poured RC immigrants into the US. 1845 – 77,000. Hostility from many. Fear of RCs. So wanted to restrict their citizenship. A nativist party arose, condemned by Whig and Democrat alike.

 The question of whether slavery would dominate the new territories dominant. Whigs chose Zachery Taylor, military hero, soldiers man. Democrats – Lewis Cass of Michigan, a super imperialist. Slavery should be settled by the settlers, so slavery legal in every state, unless the state against it. 1848 election, 7 November – on one day, Tuesday, so rural voters could travel on Monday. Not several days to stop fraud. ZT won. Clear that some in the north found the extension of slavery unacceptable. ZT said California should be a free state.

 ZT’s America in 1848 much larger, richer and more integrated. White male supremacy prevailed everywhere. North and South more divided than ever re slavery.

 ‘Finally the Christian religion remained an enduring element of imponderable magnitude in American life and thought, simultaneously progressive and conservative, a source of both social reform and divisive controversy.’

 Finale

A Vision of the Future

 July 1848 launch of movement for women’s rights in the USA at Seneca Falls led by Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Stanton and others. A conference. Signatures, like Declaration of Independence. 1920 when women given the vote, only Charlotte Woodward still alive to exercise her right. Disputes of slavery and women’s rights disturbed churches. Methodists sympathetic. Presbyterians, not so. Women very involved in petitions against Indian Removal and slavery. JQA did a lot for women’s rights. Press very divided.

 Plenty of darkness in the period covered by this book, but ‘among its hopeful aspects none more encouraging than the gathering of the women at…Seneca Falls.’

 1848 America still considered herself as an example of democracy – made meaningful because of the market economy; the way the Protestant churches were organised; and the emergence of mass political parties. All bolstered by communications. But it was only for white men. It was the widening of this that was going to prove so contentious. And that debate – about women, about blacks – was happening not in the corridors of power, but in the churches. And the debate exacerbated by all that the Jacksonian Democrats stood for, and pushed for – the dominance of the white man over the black, the Indian, and the Mexican. The Whigs wanted government sponsored modernisation. The Whigs – under Lincoln – eventually won.

 Howe ends where he began, with Samuel Finley Breese Morse….telegram still used after the phone. Last one was transmitted by Western Union on January 27, 2006.

Morse – an apologist for slavery, but he supported women’s education.

 ‘Like the people of 1848 we look with both awe and uncertainty at what God hath wrought in the United States of America.’

  

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[1] Often one will hear an argument, especially among Christians, that American has lost its way and needs to return to its early roots. One wonders if those Christians have read any history. To want American to return to the 19^th C is to ask for racist greed and a cultish faith in ‘white supremacy’ to be restored.

[2] There are footnotes galore; and because Howe’s reading is so vast he cannot give a bibliography. Instead he provides a bibliographical essay which is over twenty pages long. His opening sentence is ‘Lengthy though it is, this essay must be highly selective.’

[3] Wellington hailed Winfried Scott’s campaign ‘unsurpassed in military annals’, and Scott, ‘the greatest living soldier’. Scott conducted the largest amphibious invasion in America’s history (till the D Day landings) to take first Veracruz, and then Mexico City. After his victory though, Polk dismissed him, not wanting a military hero to pose a political threat.